Analysis of Cognitive Ergonomic and Digital Environment Risks Regarding Visual Fatigue and Burnout Among Remote Workers
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26911/jepublichealth.2026.11.04.07Abstract
Background: Technological advancements have accelerated workflows by enabling remote work; however, this shift can lead to increased worker burnout due to technostress and visual fatigue. The purpose of this research is to analyze the risks of cognitive ergonomics and the digital environment on burnout and visual fatigue among remote workers.
Subjects and Methods: This study employed an analytic observational design using a cross sectional approach. A total of 200 remote workers were selected by purposive sampling. This dependent variable was burnout. The independent variables were ergonomic design, lighting and microbreak. The mediator variables were visual fatigue, work load mental and technostress. This study employs an instrument that has undergone validity and reliability testing. Data were analyzed using simple linear regression and path analysis to examine direct and indirect relationships among variables.
Results: Based on the direct effect analysis, visual fatigue emerged as the strongest direct predictor of burnout (b=0.69; 95% CI= 0.47 to 0.91; p<0.001), followed by the variable of technostress (b=0.36; 95% CI 0.18 to 0.54; p<0.001). Furthermore, visual fatigue was significantly influenced by mental workload (b=0.29; 95% CI 0.20 to 0.38; p<0.001) and technostress (b=0.41; 95% CI= 0.32 to 0.50; p<0.001). Meanwhile, lighting did not show a significant direct effect on visual fatigue (b=0.00; 95% CI= -0.00 to 0.01; p=0.292). Regarding ergonomic design and the implementation of microbreaks, both were found to significantly influence technostress (b=3.48; 95% CI= 2.32 to 4.66; p<0.001 and b=2.87; 95% CI= 2.16 to 3.59; p<0.001) as well as mental workload (b=2.86; 95% CI= 1.73 to 4.00; p<0.001 and b=2.96; 95% CI= 2.27 to 3.65; p<0.001).
Conclusion: Visual fatigue is a primary trigger for burnout, strongly influenced by high mental workload and technostress. Conversely, ergonomic designs and microbreaks have proven effective in mitigating the impact of both technostress and mental workload.
Keywords:
burnout, cognitive ergonomics, visual fatigue, digital environment, remote workersHow to Cite
References
Adiga U, Hegde KS, Academy M, Du N. (2023). Enhancing Occupational Health and Ergonomics for Optimal Workplace Well-being : A Review. Int J All Res Educ Sci Methods. 24(4): 157–164. https://doi.org/10.56025/IJARESM.2023.11823836.
Albulescu P, Macsinga I, Rusu A, Sulea C, Bodnaru A. (2022). “ Give me a break !” A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of micro-breaks for increasing well-being and performance. Plos ONE. 17(8): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272460.
Alfavo-Viquez, D., Zamora-Hernandez MA, Azorín-López J (2024). Visual analysis of fatigue in Industry 4.0. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 133:959–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12506-7.
Behrens M, Gube M, Chaabene H, Prieske O, Zenon A, Charline K. (2023). Fatigue and Human Performance : An Updated Framework. Sports Med. 53:7–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01748-2.
Chen H, Eyoun K. (2021). Do mindfulness and perceived organizational support work ? Fear of COVID-19 on restaurant frontline employees ’ job insecurity and emotional exhaustion. Int J Hosp Manag. 94:102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102850.
Consiglio C, Massa N, Sommovigo V, Fusco L. (2023). Techno-Stress Creators , Burnout and Psychological Health among Remote Workers during the Pandemic : The Moderating Role of E-Work Self-Efficacy. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 20(22):7051. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20227051.
Costin A, Roman AF, Balica R. (2022). Remote work burnout , professional job stress , and employee emotional exhaustion during the COVID- pandemic. Front Psychol. 14:1193854. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193854.
Demerouti E. (2024). Burnout : a comprehensive review. Z Arb Wiss. 78:492–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41449-024-00452-3.
Deniz ME, Satici SA, Doenyas C, Griffiths MD. (2022). Zoom Fatigue, Psychological Distress, Life Satisfaction, and Academic Well-Being. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 25(5): 270–277. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2021.0249.
Figueiredo E, Margaça C. (2025). Loneliness and Isolation in the Era of Telework : A Comprehensive Review of Challenges for Organizational Success. Healthcare. 13(1943):1–28. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13161943.
Frick S, Smolders K, Meij LVD, Demerouti E, Kort YD. (2025). A higher illuminance reduces momentary exhaustion in exhausted employees : Results from a field study. J Environ Psychol. 102:102543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102543.
Grobelny J, Glinka M, Chirkowska-Smolak T. (2024). The impact of hedonic social media use during microbreaks on employee resource recovery. Sci Rep. 14:21603. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72825-x.
Gumasing MJJ, Tangsoc JC, Bernardo EL, Sheena C, Saflor R. (2025). Acta Psychologica The role of ergonomics in enhancing work motivation and performance of virtual assistants in e -commerce. Acta Psychol. 259:105379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105379.
Harmoudi LA. (2024). The Developing Comfort and Efficiency with Effective Visual Ergonomics. J Ergonomics. 14:403. https://doi.org/10.35248/2165-7556-24.14.403.
He T, Wei L, Goodman MS, Pag´an JA, Cuevas AG, Bather JR. (2026). Remote work and loneliness : Evidence from a nationally representative sample of employed U . S . adults. J Affect Disord. 393(B):120456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120456.
Holmes MR, Rentrope CR, Korsch A, Jennifer W. (2021). Impact of COVID ‑ 19 Pandemic on Posttraumatic Stress , Grief , Burnout , and Secondary Trauma of Social Workers in the United States. Clin Soc Work J. 49:495–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-021-00795-y.
Ionit A, Anghel D, Boudouh T. (2025). Mind, Machine, and Meaning: Cognitive Ergonomics and Adaptive Interfaces in the Age of Industry 5.0. Appl Sci. 15(14):7703. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15147703.
Kahal F, Darra AA, Torbey A. (2025). Computer vision syndrome : a comprehensive literature review. Future Sci OA. 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20565623.2025.2476923.
Kaptanoğlu RÖ. (2025). The Human Face of Digitalization in Healthcare : A Mixed-Methods Study on the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Burnout. Behav Sci. 15(1505): 1–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111505.
Karakitsiou G, Plakias S, Tsiakiri A. (2025). When Work Moves Home: Remote Work, Occupational Stress, Mental Health, Burnout and Employee Well-Being: Trends and Strategic Roadmap. Int J Psycol. 7(4): 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7040096.
Khalid K, Naz A. (2025). Prevalence of Burnout and Emotional Exhaustion in Remote or Hybrid Workers. J Health Rehabil Res. 5(10):e1893. https://doi.org/10.61919/jhrr.v5i10.1893.
Khammissa RA, Nemutandani S, Feller G, Lemmer J, Feller L. (2022). Burnout phenomenon : neurophysiological factors, clinical features, and aspects of management. J Int Med Res. 50(9):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/03000605221106428.
Kibria G, Parvez S, Saha P, Talapatra S. (2023). Heliyon Evaluating the ergonomic deficiencies in computer workstations and investigating their correlation with reported musculoskeletal disorders and visual symptoms among computer users in Bangladeshi university. Heliyon. 9(11): e22179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22179.
Kim SY, Park H, Kim H, Kim J, Seo K. (2022). Technostress causes cognitive overload in high-stress people : Eye tracking analysis in a virtual kiosk test. Inf Process Manag. 59(6):103093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2022.103093.
Kong Y, Somdee T, Yangyuen S. (2025). Academic burnout and its association with psychological factors among medical students in Guangxi, China. J Educ Health Promot. 14(101). https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_1762_24.
Krug H, Haslam SA, Otto K, Steffens NK, Farnese ML. (2021). Identity Leadership, Social Identity Continuity, and Well-Being at Work During COVID-19. Front psychol. 12: 684475. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.684475.
Lane AM, Micklewright D. (2025). Understanding Fatigue : A Psychological Framework for Health and Performance. Sci. 7(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/sci7040162.
Mahdavi N, Tapak L, Darvishi E, Irani AD, Motlagh MS. (2024). Unraveling the interplay between mental workload , occupational fatigue, physiological responses and cognitive performance in office workers. Sci Rep. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68889-4.
Masduki MP, Ekawati, Wahyuni I. (2021). Hubungan antara Karakteristik Demografi Pekerja , Beban Kerja Mental dan Gaya Kepemimpinan terhadap Burnout pada Staff Administrasi FKM UNDIP. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat. 9(6): 784-792. https://doi.org/10.14710/jkm.v9i6.31435.
Maslach C, Leiter MP. (2016). Understanding the burnout experience : recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry. 15(2):103–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20311.
Montag C, Rozgonjuk D, Riedl R, Sindermann C. (2020). On the associations between videoconference fatigue , burnout and depression including personality associations. J Affect Disord Rep. 10:100409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100409.
Moore PA, Wolffsohn JS, Sheppard AL. (2024). Digital eye strain and its impact on working adults in the UK and Ireland. Cont. Lens and Anterior Eye. 47(6): 102176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clae.2024.102176.
Mottaghi Z, Halvani G, Jambarsang S, Mehrparvar AH. (2024). Effect of Ergonomic Intervention on Cognitive Function of Office Workers. Indian J Occup Environ Med. 228(4):267-271. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijoem.ijoem_213_22.
Nagel L. (2020). The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the digital transformation of work. Int J Sociol Soc Policy. 40(9–10): 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-07-2020-0323.
Narainsamy N, Akpa-Inyang FF, Onwubu SC, Govender N, Pillay JD. (2025). Ergonomic Challenges and Musculoskeletal Pain During Remote Working: A Study of Academic Staff at a Selected University in South Africa During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 22(1):79. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22010079.
Nuzuliawati UA, Hutabarat JS, Indriati AK. (2022). Computer Vision Syndrome. Oftalmologi: Jurnal Kesehatan Mata Indonesia. 4(1): 4–8. https://doi.org/10.11594/ojkmi.v4i3.40.
Rizta SU, Nurjanah T, Syafriani M. (2025). The Effect of Screen Exposure on Lecturer Health with Workload Mediation at the Indonesian University of Science and Technology. J Eng Sci Technol Manage. 5(2):486–495. https://doi.org/10.31004/jestm.v5i2.416.
Shaban M, Abdelgawad ME, Elsayed SM. (2025). The mediating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between technostress and burnout prevention among critical care nurses a structural equation modelling approach. BMC Nursing. 24(255): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-025-02852-0.
Sheppard AL, Wolffsohn JS. (2018). Digital eye strain: prevalence, measurement and amelioration. BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 3(1):e000146. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjophth-2018-000146.
Singh P, Bala H, Lal B, Filieri R. (2022). Enforced remote working : The impact of digital platform-induced stress and remote working experience on technology exhaustion and subjective wellbeing. J Bus Res. 151:269–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.07.002.
Sonnentag S, Cheng BH, Parker SL. (2022). Recovery from Work : Advancing the Field Toward the Future. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav. 9: 33–60. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-091355.
Sostero M, Milasi S, Hurley J, Bisello M. (2020). Teleworkability and the COVID-19 crisis: a new digital divide?. European Commission: JRC121193. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC121193.
Supriyadi T, Sulistiasih S, Rahmi KH, Pramono B, Fahrudin A. (2025). The impact of digital fatigue on employee productivity and well-being : A scoping literature review. Environ Soc Psychol. 10(2): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.59429/esp.v10i2.3420.
Syakir A, Hasna Q. (2025). The Effect of Remote Working Fatigue on Turnover Intentions Among Millennial Employees in the Post- Pandemic Workplace. Acta Psychol. 4(2): 62–71. https://doi.org/10.35335/psychologia.v4i2.83.
Trujillo-guerrero MF, Venegas-toro W, Cruz-guevara DD, Zambrano-orejuela I, Pozo AP, Santos-cuadros S. (2025). A Biomechanical Analysis of Posture and Effort During Computer Activities : The Role of Furniture. Safety. 11(4): 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040122.
Turgur T, Okur S, Ahmet S, Griffiths MD. (2025). Technology in Society Zoom fatigue and integrated anxiety-stress : The mediating roles of mind wandering and boredom proneness. Technol. Soc. 82(102892). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.102892.
Urrejola-Contreras GP. (2023). Relationship between mental fatigue and burnout syndrome in remote workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: an integrative review. Rev Bras Med Trab. 21(3):e20221003. https://doi.org/10.47626/1679-4435-2022-1003.
Wang B, Prester J. (2025). A labour perspective on videoconferencing fatigue : Critical review and reframing. J Strateg Inf Syst. 34(2): 101903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsis.2025.101903.
Wang M, Guo N, Liu Y, Fu Y, Zhou X. (2025). Lighting effects on visual and cognitive adaptation in multimedia classrooms : a multimodal neurophysiological study. Build Environ. 285: 113687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113687.
Wells J, Scheibein F, Pais L, Rebelo Dos Santos N, Dalluege CA, Czakert JP, et al. (2023). A Systematic Review of the Impact of Remote Working Referenced to the Concept of Work-Life Flow on Physical and Psychological Health. Workplace Health Saf. 71(11):507-521. https://doi.org/10.1177/21650799231176397.
Zhang X, Deng G. (2025). Protecting work engagement from digital fatigue: the contingent roles of leadership style and network ties. Front Psychol. 16:1645057. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1645057.
